Improving Science Teachi=
ng
Methodology at the University Level: Synchronizing the Teaching Approaches =
at
the Secondary and University Levels
Saouma BouJaoude, depart=
ment
of Education
Introduction
= The important scientific and technological advances occurring at the dawn of the twenty-first century offer potentials and limitations. They offer a potenti= al for improved health services, environmental quality, educational opportunit= ies, consumer products, communication systems, and, in general, a better life quality. This potential is actuated, however, only if there is an equitable distribution of resources = and an equal opportunity for all to participate in knowledge production. Herein= materialize the limitations and the challenges: How do we assure equal opportunities for participation and just resource distribution?
&nbs= p; The authors of the Arab Human Development Report 2003 argue that reforming the outdated and under-resourced education systems in Arab states in not only necessary but very urgent if Arabs are to participate in knowledge producti= on and become part of the “global knowledge stream” (United Nations Development Program, Regional Bureau for Arab States [UNDP/RBAS], 2003, p. = I). Educational reform is also necessary in order for = the Arabs to benefit from the tremendous opportunities offered by science and technology. Moreover, the UNDP/RBAS report suggests that for change to be successful its processes have to be home grown (UNDP/RBAS), 2002, 2003). Th= at is, change and advancement will be possible when the change process origina= tes from within each individual and country. Science and technology by themselves do not help individuals and nations to advance. It is the serious effort and determination that is exerted by individuals and countries to understand the possibilities offered by science and technology and to reali= ze the importance of producing, rather than only using, science and technology that initiate advancement. In addition, the values placed on education, science, and technology and their methods are important driving forces behi= nd any important advancement are. Memorizing terms, and even whole science boo= ks is useless if the methods and values of science and technology as well as t= heir limitations are not cherished (BouJaoude, 2003).
&nbs= p; Just resource distribution requires economic reform, efforts to include all sect= ions of society -- especially women and marginalized minorities -- in the econom= ic cycle and the development of human resources through education and training. According to UNDP/RBAS (2003), there is a need to shift towards knowledge-b= ased and value-added production, which “calls for a decisive move towards developing renewable resources through knowledge and technological capabili= ties and towards diversifying economic structures and markets.”(p. 31).
&nbs= p; The central role of education in realizing the promises and potentials offered = by science and technology is evident from the emphasis accorded to it by the t= wo Arab human development reports and in many UNESCO documents (UNESCO, 1994, Vargas, 2000). However, educational systems in Arab States do not seem to be ready to take on this daunting task. While these states have invested in education and have seen increasing enrollments at all levels of education, = the problems of quality of education and the lack of responsiveness of secondary education programs to reform in the last decade of the 20th cent= ury are still serious problems. This state of affairs is still prevailing even though secondary programs have major effects on students’ knowledge a= nd skills needed for enrolment in higher education institutions, employment, a= nd sustainable development (Billeh & Sulieman, 2003).
&nbs= p; Likewise, the situation in higher education institutions is not encouraging. Accordin= g to UNDP/RBAS (2003), there is a wide gap between A= rab states and the developed world with respect to enrolment in higher educatio= n. Many universities in Arab States are under the direct control of governments and seem to serve the political rather than the educational agendas of the stat= e. Universities seem to lack the autonomy necessary to reflect real societal needs. Furthermore, these universities have seen a decline in expenditure at the same time that they witnessed increasing enrollment, a situation that l= ed to poor libraries, poorly equipped laboratories, over crowded classes, and limited contact between faculty members and students. Another area where Ar= ab universities are deficient is knowledge production through original and high quality scientific research: Very few university faculty members and studen= ts are involved in research, especially in science[1] and technology.
The
above situation in schools and universities cannot persist if Arab students=
are
to compete in the global science-and-technology driven markets of the
twenty-first century. There is a pressing need for comprehensive and system=
ic
educational reform that addresses all components of the system and all leve=
ls
of education, with emphasis on coordination among the levels and involving =
students
in the educational process. The need for educational reform is succinctly
described by UNDP/RBAS (2003):
Arab countries need to
radically improve the quality of all levels of education. Basic education
should become universal and extended to 10 years. Special attention should =
be
paid to early childhood learning and to creating a system for life-long
learning. In higher education, improving quality requires subjecting all
programs to independent and periodical evaluation (p. 1E).
&= nbsp; Then again, what types of students should Arab educational systems prepare? According to BouJaoude (2002), students graduating from schools and universities at the beginning of the twenty first century need to be equipp= ed with significant scientific and technological knowledge and science process skills to enable them to be productive members of society. Likewise, they n= eed to develop attitudes that will motivate them to deal with their erroneous concepts (Fisher, 2004) and use their knowledge and skills in a responsible manner in solving science related problems. Specifically, they must develop= a thorough knowledge of central concepts that they can apply in a variety of situations and science process and thinking skills that are especially important for effective functioning in the world of work. For example, they must learn to identify and analyze problems and to explore and test solutio= ns in a variety of situations. This strong conceptual base and these essential skills should be at the heart of teaching and learning science and technolo= gy at all educational levels, especially at the secondary and university level= s.
The reports cited =
above
paint a gloomy picture of the status of secondary and university education =
in
Arab states. There is a need, however, to investigate the quality of educat=
ion
in specific Arab states because of the possible differences between these
states in their approaches to education. Moreover, lessons could be learned
from focusing on single states rather than describing the general problems =
and
issues common to all of them. Consequently, this paper describes the nature=
and
content of the secondary and college science curricula in
Secondary and University Level Programs=
in
Content and te=
aching
approaches of the Lebanese curriculum
The new Le= banese curriculum, which was enacted in 1997 (Decree No. 10227), responded to criticisms leveled at the old curriculum that was developed between 1968 and 1971. The old curriculum was criticized for the undue emphasis it placed on science content, breadth of coverage, emphasis on the structure of the discipline to the neglect of science in everyday life, neglect problem solv= ing and decision making skills, outdated scientific information, mismatch betwe= en students’ cognitive level and curricular objectives, and lack of alignment between curricular goals, objectives, classroom activities, and evaluation.
= The new curriculum attempted to address many of the weaknesses of the old one by attempting to relate science to everyday life, emphasizing problem-solving skills, and providing detailed goals and objectives and related classroom activities. Moreover, a new educational ladder was introduced and recent scientific knowledge was introduced at all levels of the new curriculum.
The new curriculum provides a common content f= or all students until Grade 10. In Grade 11 students may choose to follow the Humanities Stream or the Science Stream. Those who choose the Humanities St= ream may either continue with the Humanities and Literature Stream or follow the Social Sciences and Economics Stream in Grade 12. Students who choose the Science Stream in Grade 11 may choose the General Sciences Stream or the Li= fe Sciences Stream in Grade 12. Each stream consists of a fixed number of cour= ses that all students who choose the stream are required to complete. There is = no possibility of elective courses within the stream. All students take scienc= e at all levels. The number of periods of science per week varies with the level= and stream the student selects. Tables 1 and 2 present the number of periods of science per week and per year at each grade level and in each stream.
Table 1
Number of Periods per Week of General Science, Biol=
ogy,
Chemistry, and Biology Taught at Each Grade Level of the Lebanese Education=
al
System
|
Subject |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
11 |
12 |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
S |
H |
GS |
L |
SS |
H |
|
|
General Sc. |
2 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
4 |
5 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Biology |
|
|
|
|
|
|
3 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
|
|
6 |
|
|
|
Chemistry |
|
|
|
|
|
|
1.5 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
3 |
|
4 |
5 |
|
|
|
Physics |
|
|
|
|
|
|
1.5 |
2 |
2 |
3 |
5 |
|
7 |
5 |
|
|
|
Sc. Literacy |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3 |
|
|
4 |
3 |
|
Total |
2 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
6 |
6 |
7 |
10 |
3 |
11 |
16 |
4 |
3 |
![](3D"presboujaoude_files/image001.gif")
L =3D Life Sciences, =
H =3D
Humanities, S =3D Science, GS =3D General Sciences, SS =3D Social Sciences =
and
Economics
Table 2
Total of Per=
iods per
Year of General Science, Biology, Chemistry, and Biology Taught at Each Gra=
de
Level of the Lebanese Educational System
![](3D"presboujaoude_files/image002.gif")
|
&nbs=
p;
Grade Subject |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
11 |
12 |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
S |
H |
GS |
L |
SS |
H |
|
|
General Sc. |
60 |
60 |
90 |
120 |
120 |
150 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Biology |
|
|
|
|
|
|
90 |
60 |
60 |
60 |
60 |
|
|
180 |
|
|
|
Chemistry |
|
|
|
|
|
|
45 |
60 |
60 |
60 |
90 |
|
120 |
150 |
|
|
|
Physics |
|
|
|
|
|
|
45 |
60 |
60 |
90 |
150 |
|
210 |
150 |
|
|
|
Sc. Literacy |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
90 |
|
|
120 |
90 |
|
Total |
60 |
60 |
90 |
120 |
120 |
150 |
180 |
180 |
180 |
210 |
300 |
90 |
330 |
480 |
120 |
90 |
L =3D Life Sciences, =
H =3D
Humanities, S =3D Science, GS =3D General Sciences, SS =3D Social Sciences =
and
Economics
Science has attracted increasing attention in the 1997 Lebanese curriculum (BouJaoude, 2002a). For example, the number of hours allocated to science teaching has increased in the new Educational Ladder (National Center for Educational Research and Development [NCERD], 1995), biology was introduced at the intermediate and secondary levels, and an issues-oriented science curriculum was proposed for non-science majors. Moreover, the science curriculum commi= ttee that was commissioned by NCERD to design and write the new curriculum has decided to give emphasis to students-centered and active learning approaches with emphasis on hands-on and minds-on science teaching in addition to upda= ting the scientific information and attempting to align the curriculum content w= ith students’ cognitive levels. These innovations attempted to address the identified weaknesses of = the old curriculum.
With regard to the number of hours of science tak=
en
by students, by the end of Grade 6, Lebanese students have taken approximat=
ely
600 periods of science. Moreover, by the end of basic education in Grade 9,
students have taken 1140 periods of science while they would have taken 1350
periods of science by end of Grade 10, which is the last year of the common
curriculum. Finally, students who choose the General Sciences Stream would =
have
taken 1980 periods of science by the end of Grade 12 and those who opt for =
the
Life Sciences Stream would have taken 2130 periods of science by the end of
Grade 12. During the secondary cycle, students who choose the humanities st=
ream
take 390 periods of science, those who choose social sciences and economics
take 420 periods of science, those who choose general sciences take 840 per=
iods
of science, while those who choose the life sciences take 990 periods of sc=
ience. In comparison, students in
In additio=
n to
initiating the process of curriculum reform in terms of content and teaching
methodology, NCERD produced textbooks, implemented a comprehensive
teacher-training plan, and published teachers’ manuals and training a=
nd
evaluation guides for all subject areas.&n=
bsp;
NCERD is presently involved in a project which aims to evaluate all
components of the curriculum using its own research teams as well as result=
s of
others empirical studies conducted by independe=
nt
educational groups such as the Lebanese Association for Educational Studies
(LAES) (2001-2003), which conducted a comprehensive study of the Lebanese
curriculum including the educational ladder, curriculum objectives, curricu=
lum
content, textbooks, evaluation system, student achievement, and teacher
training programs.
Lebanese students take comparable, if not more, numbe=
rs of
periods of science to students in many countries. However, the number of
periods of science may not be sufficient to provide an adequate view about =
the
quality of pre-college science education.&=
nbsp;
The quality of science education requires a comprehensive plan to
evaluate the different components of the curriculum. The studies conducted =
by
NCERD and other organizations or individuals investigated significant
components of the curriculum. However, one missing, although important,
component of the evaluation process is empirical research on the actual
teaching and evaluation practices taking place in Lebanese classrooms. A
comprehensive review of the science education research literature between 1=
992
and 2002 conducted by BouJaoude & Abd-El-Khalick (2004) showed that such
studies have not been conducted.
University
Science Curricula
There were no formal mechanisms to coordinate the con=
tent
of the Lebanese secondary science curriculum with university curricula, des=
pite
the fact that a significant number of private and public university faculty
members participated in designing the secondary school science curriculum a=
nd
the fact that one of the stated objectives of the Plan for Educational Refo=
rm
(NCERD, 1994) was to strengthen the relationships between secondary and
university education. In addi=
tion,
there were no formal attempts to align the teaching and assessment practices
advocated in the new Lebanese curricula with those used at the university
level.
In an effort to understand the relationships between =
the
secondary and university curricula and teaching and assessment practices, t=
he
science curricula and instructional and assessment practices of three
universities: Lebanese University (LU), American University of Beirut (AUB),
and Université Saint Joseph(USJ) were examined. These
universities represent the three main traditions in higher education in
In terms of research, teaching, and assessment, a self
study of the Faculty of Sciences conducted during the academic year 2004 (L=
U,
2004), concluded the following:
1.
=
Research
activities are very limited
2.
=
The
Faculty of Science does not have any guidelines regarding teaching. However,
faculty members typically use lectures, do not use any instructional aids, =
and
do not involve students in the teaching/learning process effectively. The o=
nly exception being the final pro=
ject
required in all specializations.
3.
The Faculty of Science does not require faculty
members to prepare and share course descriptions with students. Moreover, t=
here
is no formal mechanism to coordinate content of courses in the Faculty.
4.
The Faculty of Science does not have clear guideli=
nes
about the types of assessment practices to be used in the courses, except f=
or
requiring final written examinations with the possibility of giving periodic
examinations during the semester or the year.
In terms of research, teaching, and assessment, promo=
tion
criteria of AUB emphasize research, teaching, and service. Whilst research
productivity plays a central role in promotion decisions, AUB has launched a
teaching excellence initiative that aims to provide faculty members with
opportunities to learn about different teaching and assessment methodologies
and to integrate technology in their teaching. Moreover, a teaching award h=
as
been established to recognize excellent teachers. Besides, although there a=
re
no formal requirements for the types of assessment, numerous courses utiliz=
e a
variety of assessment approaches.
This is evident from the results of research conducted with AUB̵=
7;s
graduating students.
To assess students’ experiences, AUB has conduc=
ted
exit surveys with students in the past few years. The results of the survey
conducted between 1999 and 2002 showed that the majority of students thought
that faculty members discussed recent developments in the field in their
classes, enabled student involvement, encouraged problem solving and group
work, related course materials to outside relevant events, encouraged stude=
nts
to do independent research for term papers, and required students to acquire
information by using the Internet. In addition, students thought that facul=
ty
members evaluated students’ performance periodically and used a varie=
ty
of performance evaluation types such as objective tests, subjective tests,
homework assignments, individual reports, and group projects[8].
Along with these studies, AUB conducted a self-study during the accreditati=
on
process that was completed in 2004. One of the components of the self-study
involved investigating assessment of student learning. The purpose of this
activity was to “to examine the process by which AUB evaluates the
learning outcomes of its academic courses and programs and demonstrates that
its students have the knowledge, skills and competencies consistent with the
mission and goals of the institution[9]”.
Lebanese students are accepted at AUB in the sophomore
class, the second year of college education in similar American universitie=
s.
This is premised on the assumption that the Lebanese Baccalaureate is
equivalent to the freshman class, which is the first year of university stu=
dy
in American Universities. Evidence for this equivalence was demonstrated by
comparing the content of the Lebanese science curriculum with that of the
typical freshman level courses. It is apparent from comparing credit
requirements at AUB and requirements of the Lebanese Third Secondary Class
(Table 3) that Lebanese students meet or exceed the freshman requirements at
AUB whose requirements are equivalent to freshman requirements at comparable
universities in the
Table 3
Comparison Between Credit Requirements at AUB and Requirement of the Lebanese Third Secondary Class.<= o:p>
|
Freshman
requirements at AUB |
Number of
credits |
Requirem=
ent of
the Lebanese Third Secondary Class |
Number of
credits |
|
Natural =
sciences |
3-9 |
Natural =
sciences
(physics, chemistry, biology, and geology |
6-32 |
In addition, the contents of science courses at the
secondary school level were shown to be comparable to those of freshman lev=
el
courses. To illustrate this comparability, the content of chemistry courses=
at
the Lebanese secondary level were compared to freshman level courses at
AUB. This comparison showed t=
hat
Lebanese students cover similar chemistry content to that given in freshmen
courses as demonstrated in the following paragraphs. The differences howeve=
r,
are in the fact that Lebanese students take relatively more hours of differ=
ent
sciences than freshmen level students (Table 3).
Lebanese stu=
dents
start taking chemistry as a separate subject starting in Grade 7. The
curriculum develops from being descriptive at the early middle school grade=
s to
becoming abstract and mathematics-based at the first secondary level. By the
time students reach the second secondary level, they start taking topics th=
at
are typically covered at the freshman university level. By the end of the t=
hird
secondary, students opting for the scientific branch would have taken mater=
ial
that covers what is taken at the
- Organic Chemistry (offe=
red
at the sophomore level)
- Polymers (offered at the
sophomore level)
- Soaps and detergents
- Current medicinal drugs=
- New materials (ceramics,
…)
- Petroleum and natural g=
as
- Pollution
Students opting for the humanities branch take a chem=
istry
curriculum that is tailored to their personal needs as citizens while those
opting for the social sciences/economics branch take a curriculum that cate=
rs
to their personal needs as well as to the professional orientations in econ=
omics
and business administration. It is noteworthy that students in all branches
take a common chemistry curriculum between grades 7 and 10. Table 4 presents a comparison of t=
he
content of the Lebanese Baccalaureate and the typical freshmen chemistry
courses at AUB.
According to the AUB =
2004
Catalogue (p. 31)
Admission decisions a=
re
made on completed applications based primarily on the student’s acade=
mic
record (school grades) and SAT I results. Factors such as geographic
distribution, alumni relationships, and character may also be considered.
… All admission decisions are conditional upon evidence of the
student’s having received the certificate or degree on the basis of w=
hich
admission was sought, and based on evidence of having met the English Langu=
age
Proficiency Requirement”
&=
nbsp; Université
Saint Joseph. The Faculté=
des
Sciences of USJ offers three-year degrees (Licence) in life and earth scien=
ces,
chemistry, and physics[11].
The Licence in biology and earth sciences require students to take courses =
in
biology, chemistry, geology, physics, math, computer science, language,
electives, and a project. The
Licence in chemistry requires students to take courses in chemistry, biolog=
y,
physics, math, computer science, language, electives, and a project. The
licence in physics requires courses in physics, chemistry, math, computer
science, language, and a project.
There are specific requirements for faculty research =
at the
Faculté des Sciences of USJ.
These are provided in the faculty bylaws[12].
Teaching quality is also discussed in the bylaws. For example Article 37 st=
ates
the Faculté organizes, when necessary, pedagogical training sessions=
for
faculty members, which may be obligatory when needed. With reference to stu=
dent
assessment, the Faculté des Sciences requires that 60% of the final
grade go to a final exam while 40% is distributed over shorter exams during=
the
semester. In terms of admission, the Faculté des Sciences selects
students based on their grades in scientific subjects taken at the secondary
level with the constrains of availability of places in the different
specializations[13].
Table 4
Comparison of the Content =
of the
Lebanese Baccalaureate and the Typical Freshmen Chemistry Courses at AUB.
|
|
Chemistry Content of Lebanese curri=
culum |
|||||||||
|
Third secondary |
Second secondary |
First Secondary |
||||||||
|
AUB - ch=
emistry
101 |
Humaniti=
es |
General =
sciences |
Life sci=
ences |
Social S=
c. and
Economics |
Scientif=
ic |
Humaniti=
es |
|
|||
|
Measurem=
ent,
significant figures |
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|||
|
Atoms,
molecules, and ions |
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|||
|
Mass
relationships in chemical reactions |
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|||
|
Properti=
es and
reactions of aqueous solutions |
|
X |
X |
|
|
|
|
|||
|
Gases |
|
X |
X |
|
|
|
|
|||
|
Thermo-c=
hemistry |
|
|
|
|
X |
|
|
|||
|
Quantum =
theory
and the electronic structure of atoms |
|
|
|
|
X |
|
|
|||
|
The peri=
odic
table |
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|||
|
Chemical=
bonding |
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|||
|
Intermol=
ecular
forces |
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|||
|
Physical
properties of solutions |
|
X |
X |
|
|
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
AUB R=
11;
Chemistry 102 |
Chemistry Content of Lebanese curri=
culum
Third secondary |
Chemistry
Content of Lebanese curriculum second secondary |
||||||||
|
|
Humanities[14] |
General sciences |
Life sciences |
Social and[15]
Economics |
Scientific |
Humanities |
||||
|
Solution=
s |
|
X |
X |
|
|
|
||||
|
Properti=
es of
acids and bases |
|
X |
X |
|
|
|
||||
|
Acid-bas=
e and
solubility equilibria |
|
X |
X |
|
|
|
||||
|
Entropy =
and free
energy |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
Electroc=
hemistry |
|
|
|
|
X |
|
||||
|
Metals |
|
|
|
|
X |
|
||||
|
Nuclear
chemistry |
|
Taught in the physics curriculum |
Taught in the physics curriculum |
|
|
|
||||
|
Kinetics=
|
|
X |
X |
|
|
|
||||
Conclusions and Discussion
What conclusions can be drawn from the description of=
the
secondary Lebanese curriculum and that of the three universities provided
above.
Table 5 pres=
ents a
summary of the information about the three selected universities. This table
includes the number of years to complete the first university degree,
specialization, admission requirements, and types of required courses at LU,
AUB, and USJ. This table shows that the courses taken by students at LU and=
USJ
are more geared toward science or science related courses, while courses ta=
ken
by students at AUB include ones in humanities and social sciences, among ot=
her
areas, and represent more that 35% of the curriculum for a Bachelor degree.
This is because AUB “is committed to offering its students a broad
undergraduate liberal arts education … the general education distribu=
tion
requirements are intended to expose students to a range of intellectual
experiences during their time at AUB … In addition to courses in their
academic majors and the opportunity to take major concentrations in specific
fields, all AUB students must take 36 credits in general education
requirements” (AUB, 2004, P. 49).
An examination of the university course descriptions,=
where
available, and the university degree programs described above, shows that m=
ost
of the programs represent the traditional structures of the disciplines with
very little attention to the function or development of these disciplines.
According to
Table 5
Number of Years to Complet=
e First
University Degree, Specialization, and types of required courses at LU, AUB=
, and
USJ.
|
Univers=
ity |
Number =
of years |
Admissi=
on
requirements |
Special=
ization |
Type of courses |
|
LU |
4 years=
|
Lebanese
Baccalaureate |
Biology=
|
Biology,
mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, informatics, and languages |
|
|
|
|
Chemist=
ry |
Chemist=
ry,
physics, mathematics, biology, informatics, and languages |
|
|
|
|
Physics=
|
Physics,
chemistry, mathematics, informatics, and languages |
|
AUB |
3 years=
|
Seconda=
ry
School Grades, SAT, and other factors |
B.Sc. in
Biology include |
Biology,
chemistry, physics, math, language, humanities, social sciences, and
electives. |
|
|
|
|
B.Sc. in
chemistry |
Chemist=
ry,
physics, computer science, math, language, humanities, social sciences, a=
nd
elective courses. |
|
|
|
|
B.Sc. in
geology |
Geology,
computer science, language, humanities, social sciences, and electives. |
|
|
|
|
B.Sc. in
physics |
Physics=
, math,
computer science, language, humanities, social sciences, and elective
courses. |
|
USJ |
3 years=
|
Seconda=
ry
School science grades |
Biology=
and
Earth Sciences |
Biology,
chemistry, geology, physics, math, computer science, language, electives =
and
project |
|
|
|
|
Chemist=
ry |
Biology,
chemistry, geology, physics, math, computer science, language, electives =
and
project |
|
|
|
|
Physics=
|
Physics,
chemistry, math, computer science, project, language. |
The lack of emphas=
is on
the function and development of the science disciplines impacts what Resnick
(1999) calls the active use of knowledge by students. That is if students at
all levels do not synthesize several sources of information, are not challe=
nged
to construct explanations and to test their understanding of concepts by
applying and discussing them, and if students’ prior and out-of-school
knowledge is not used regularly in the teaching and learning process, then
students will learn science for doing well on exams, without any impact of =
this
scientific information on their everyday science related decisions.
As stated above, there were no formal mechanisms to
coordinate the content of the secondary school and university curricula. The
content of the programs seems to be coordinated because the curricula of bo=
th
levels seem to be based on the structure of the respective disciplines.
The situation concerning assessment and instructional
practices, however, seems different. While NCERD has produced extensive and
comprehensive guidelines for evaluation, including content domains and
competencies along with examples of items that measure the different
competencies, the university programs described above seem to pay little
attention to evaluation practices. Only AUB has started to pay attention to
this issue and is presently offering seminars on developing learning outcom=
es
and assessment practices that faculty members take voluntarily. While the
evaluation system at the secondary level was reviewed in a study by LAES
(2000-2003) the author is not aware of any such studies on teaching practic=
es
at the secondary school and university levels
The situation regarding instructional practices is si=
milar
to that of assessment and evaluation. The new Lebanese curriculum has advoc=
ated
the use of student-centered and active learning teaching approaches. Howeve=
r,
except for AUB, universities do not seem to advocate or encourage changing =
the
teaching practices in place at the present time. Similar to the seminars on assessm=
ent
and evaluation AUB is presently offering voluntary seminars on teaching
practices. What is missing,
however, is serious and comprehensive research on teaching practices used in
secondary and university classrooms or the impact of interventions on actual
teaching practices.
&=
nbsp; The
admission requirements of USJ and AUB include secondary school grades. But,=
in
the absence of research on teaching and assessment practices and on the
validity of these grades as measures of student performance in science, the
arguments for including these grades in the admission criteria are not tena=
ble.
The fairness and credibility of evaluations are important issues to conside=
r if
assessment is to provide parents, universities, and employers with credible
evaluations of what individual students know and can do. In the case of LU =
in
which is based on Baccalaureate results, the problem of credibility and
fairness of the official exams also raises important issues that need to be
considered seriously by LU.
&=
nbsp; One
final issue to ponder is the integration of information and communication
technology (ICT) in science teaching and learning. Students at all levels of
education seem to be exposed to information technology. However, there is a
need to change the ways of thinking about ICT and its relationship to learn=
ing
in order to maximize the benefits that ICT can provide. Prensky (2001) argu=
es
that current students “are socialized in a way that is vastly differe=
nt
from their parents” (P. 1). By the time students enter college, most =
of
them have spent over 10,000 hours playing videogames, over 10,000 hours tal=
king
or receiving messages on cell phones, over 20,000 hours watching television,
and have seen more than 500,000 commercials, while they have spent
approximately 5,000 hour reading (Prensky 2001a). These students, according to Prens=
ky
(2001), are “digital natives”, while their teachers, who are
typically the age of their parents and have lived in a digitally different
world, are “digital immigrants”. The differences between the
“digital natives” and the “digital immigrants”, Pre=
nsky
argues, are at the heart of many educational problems and the educational
systems in their present forms can no longer cater for the needs of the
“digital natives.” So,
change is inevitable and the digital immigrants have to learn the ways of t=
he
“natives” to be able to teach them because “kids born into
any new culture learn the new language easily, and forcefully resist using =
the
old” (Prensky, 2001, P. 3).
Adults cannot, and should not, spend their time remin=
iscing
about the “good old days” when students were different. They ha=
ve
to change the “what” and the “how” of teaching. Prensky maintain that there are no=
w two
types of content, the “legacy” content, which includes the cont=
ent,
and methods of the old curriculum and the “future” content, whi=
ch
is digital and technological, and includes the ethics, politics, sociology,
languages, and other things that go with them. As educators we need to change our
teaching methodologies in such a way as to teach both legacy and future
content: “This does not=
mean
changing the meaning of what is important or of good thinking skills. But it
does mean going faster, less step-by step, more in parallel, ….”
(Prensky, 2001, P.4).
Finally, Prensky (2002) argues that many traditional disciplines are
becoming less attractive as science and technology advance and the interest=
of
students is now at the disciplinary boundaries such as neuropharmacology and
bioinformatics.
Prensky̵=
7;s
arguments call for a major change in what we teach and how to teach it. Mor=
e importantly,
it argues for the need for a revolutionary change in the way we approach
teaching as a whole, especially in the sciences. Our students are at the present ty=
pe
“science immigrants” and very few of our teachers and university
faculty are “science natives” because they have not been school=
ed
and cultured in the ways of science. The curricula at the secondary school and university =
levels
seem to contain almost the same topics that increase in complexity as stude=
nts
move. Very few secondary school and university students are involved in
conducting scientific research because a small number of their teachers and
university faculty are doing research. Additionally, even if university fac=
ulty
members are conducting research they rarely involve their students in this
research. Being schooled in t=
he
methods of scientific research is essential if our students, especially tho=
se
who intend to major in the sciences but not limited to them, if they are to
become producers rather than consumers of research and if they are to make
peace with the modern world. =
Recommendations
1.&n=
bsp;
=
Research
in cognitive psychology and education suggests that students at all levels =
need
to have the opportunity to learn science actively by working in collaborati=
on
with peers and teachers (Sunal, 2004). Consequently, Prensky’s argume=
nts
that today’s students are qualitatively different from their teachers
require teachers to change their methods and beliefs about teaching. They n=
eed
to realize the teaching is not disseminating information but rather helping
students develop deep understandings of the methods, habits of mind, and
content of science. This change requires that university faculty members are
educated in new teaching approaches and are provided with the necessary
resources to implement these approaches the classroom (Wright & Sunal,
2004). Traditionally teacher education was relegated to pre-college teachin=
g.
It is time now to extend this education into universities because the needs=
of
students are the same at all educational levels. Reforming secondary schools
and university education should proceed in parallel because of the intimate=
and
reflexive relations between the two stages. This increasing emphasis on
teaching should receive equal attention in the reward systems of universiti=
es
if it is to succeed.
2.&n=
bsp;
=
Associated
with the changes in instruction are necessary changes in assessment and
evaluation systems. The nature of tasks students perform in a student-cente=
red
learning environment requires different methods of assessment and
evaluation. Teachers at al le=
vels
need to be schooled in these methods.
3.&n=
bsp;
=
Students
at the secondary and university levels need to be involved in extended rese=
arch
projects with faculty mentors (Laws and Hastings, 2002) if they are to be
schooled in the methods and habits of mind associated with science. This
requires that both students and faculty members endeavor to become
“science natives”, to borrow Prensky’s term. If this is n=
ot
done, our students will continue being consumers of information who are
standing on the sidelines while the world moves forward at a harrowing pace=
.
4.&n=
bsp;
=
Secondary
level and university students may need to survey fewer science topics in mo=
re
depth. This should provide them with opportunities to focus on the methods =
and
content of science rather than just on the content. This in no way is a cal=
l to
minimize the importance of scientific content. The real challenge for all
teachers, according to Resnick (1999), is to integrate rigor of content with
high-level thinking and active use of knowledge in an effort based environm=
ent
that rewards authentic and high quality accomplishments.
5.&n=
bsp;
=
The
purpose of science education should be debated among all stakeholders. In an
increasingly science dependent world the purpose of science education canno=
t be
merely to prepare students for higher grades and for science and science
related careers. The minority of today’s students choose science rela=
ted
careers. The challenge is to design science curricula that prepare all <=
/u>students
to function properly in the world of the 21st century. Thus, all
students need to become scientifically literate able to understand the role=
of
evidence, the epistemological basis of science learning, the relationships
between scientific and social issues, and the values inherent in doing scie=
nce.
6.&n=
bsp;
=
It goes
without saying that students and teachers at all educational levels need to=
be
technologically literate. More importantly, teachers need to work hard on
understanding the demands of a digital world in which their students grew u=
p.
This world qualitatively very different from the world they grew in and they
need to invest the time and effort necessary to reap the huge potentials to
improve education that are inherent in this new world.
7.&n=
bsp;
=
Most
educational research at the present time is focused on investigating issues=
and
problems related to pre-college education. Educational and assessment pract=
ices
used at the college levels should attract equal attention. Moreover, university reward systems
should change to accommodate this new type of research if it is to flourish=
.
References<=
/o:p>
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Comparison of Freshman
Requirements at AUB and Three Universities in the USA
|
Freshman
requirements at AUB |
Freshman
requirements at Amherst College |
Freshman
requirements at AUB New York University |
Freshman
requirements at AUB Syracuse
University |
|
24 requi=
red and
6 elective credits distributed among languages, social sciences, humaniti=
es,
math, and natural sciences. |
Open Cur=
riculum: Amherst =
does not
have distribution requirements. It is the responsibility of the students =
with
the help of the advisor to plan the curriculum. It is through the major t=
hat
students acquire depth in a specific filed. The average number of required
courses is 8 per a major. The Amherst catalogue states "We hoe that =
you
select courses that allow you to: =
· &nbs=
p;
Gain knowledge of a culture and a language other than your o=
wn
and of human experiences in a period before your own lifetime =
· &nbs=
p;
Analyze your own polity, economic order, and culture =
· &nbs=
p;
Employ abstract reasoning =
· &nbs=
p;
Work within the scientific method =
· &nbs=
p;
Engage in creative action-doing, making and performing =
· &nbs=
p;
Interpret, evaluate, and explore the life of the imagination=
. |
=
· &nbs=
p;
NYU offers the Morse Academic Plan (MAP) that defines the co=
mmon
experience for undergraduates across the different divisions of the
University. MAP is an integrated general education curriculum consisting =
of 4
parts: the expository writing program, study of foreign languages, the
foundations of contemporary culture (4 course sequence), and the foundati=
ons
of scientific inquiry (3 course sequence). Typically students complete the =
MAP
program by the end of the Sophomore year. =
· &nbs=
p;
Academic Program |
The liberal arts core is completed during the first two year=
s.
The Core consists of: 1.
Liberal Skills: Includes two writing courses offered through the Writing
Program and a third writing-intensive course. Students must also demonstr=
ate
a designated level of proficiency in either math or foreign language. 2.
Divisional Perspectives: Includes four courses each in the three major academ=
ic
divisions— humanities, natural sciences and mathematics, and social
sciences. Students can choose from hundreds of courses to satisfy this
requirement and enhance their individual interests. 3.
Critical Reflections: Includes two approved courses in a subject of your
choice. These courses help students consider the relevance of liberal arts
and sciences to ethical and social issues. |
[1] Science in this paper refers to natural science including the physical and = life sciences.
[2] http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/curricul/secondary/oss/oss.html
[3] http://www.fact-index.com/e/ed/education_in_germany.html
[4] http://www.emsc.nysed.gov/part100/pages/1005a.html
[5] http://www.ibe.unesco.org/National/China/NewChinaPdf/Iosborne.pdf
[6] Information about LU was acquired from the 2000 Catalogue of the University, which is the most recent available one.
[8] http://staff.aub.edu.lb/~webteach/activities.htm
[9] http://staff.aub.edu.lb/~webaccr/self_study.htm
[13] The statement on admission reads:=
La
sélection des candidats se fera sur étude du dossier
présenté lors de la période de pré-inscription =
dans
la limite des places disponibles, les critères d'admission ét=
ant
les notes des matières scientifiques des années secondaires